Jammu & Kashmir - History
Many historians and locals believe that Jammu was founded by Raja Jamboolochan in 14th century BCE.
During one of his hunting campaigns he reached the Tawi River where he saw a goat and a lion drinking
water at the same place. The king was impressed and decided to set up a town after his name, Jamboo. With
the passage of time, the name was corrupted and became "Jammu". According to one "folk etymology", the
name "Kashmir" means "desiccated land" (from the Sanskrit: Ka = water and shimeera = desiccate).
According to another folk etymology, following Hindu mythology, the sage Kashyapa drained a lake to
produce the land now known as Kashmir.
With a fertile soil and temperate climate, the valley is rich in rice, vegetables and fruits of all kinds, and
famous for the quality of its wool. Kashmir has been inhabited since prehistoric times, sometimes independent
but at times subjugated by invaders from Bactria, Tartary, Tibet and other mountainous regions to the North,
and from the Indus valley and the Ganges valley to the South. At different times the dominant religion has
been Animist, Buddhist, Hindu and (after the period of the history) Muslim.
The Rajatarangini is the first of a series of four histories that record the annals of Kashmir. Commencing
with a rendition of traditional 'history' of very early times (3102 BCE), the Rajatarangini comes down to the
reign of Sangrama Deva, (c.1006 AD) and Kalhana. The second work, by Jonaraja, continues the history from
where Kalhana left off, and, entering the Muslim period, gives an account of the reigns down to that of Zainul-ab-ad-din, 1412. P. Srivara carried on the record to the accession of Fah Shah in 1486. The fourth work,
called Rajavalipataka, by Prajnia Bhatta, completes the history to the time of the incorporation of Kashmir
in the dominions of the Mogul emperor Akbar, 1588.
Jonaraja (c. 15th century) was a Kashmiri historian and Sanskrit poet. His Dvitīyā Rājataraṅginī is a
continuation of Kalhana's Rājataranginī and brings the chronicle of the kings of Kashmir down to the time
of the author's patron Zain-ul-Abidin (r. 1423-74). Jonaraja, however, could not complete the history of the
patron as he died in the 35th regnal year of him. His pupil, Śrīvara continued the history and his work, the
Tritīyā Rājataraṅginī covers the period 1459-86.
In his Dvitīyā Rājataranginī, Jonaraja has vividly described the decline of the Hindu ruling dynasty and the
rise of the Muslim ruling dynasty in Kashmir.
The Rājataranginī (The River of Kings) is a metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir from earliest time
written in Sanskrit by Kalhana. It is believed that the book was written sometime during 1147-1149 CE. The
work generally records the heritage of Kashmir, but 120 verses of Rājatarangiṇī describe the misrule
prevailing in Kashmir during the reign of King Kalash, son of King Ananta Deva of Kashmir. Although the
earlier books are far from accurate in their chronology, they still provide an invaluable source of information
about early Kashmir and its neighbors, and are widely referenced by later historians and ethnographers.
In the Rajatarangini, a history of Kashmir written by Kalhana in mid-12th century, it is stated that the valley
of Kashmir was formerly a lake. This was drained by the great rishi or sage, Kashyapa, son of Marichi, son
of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills at Baramulla (Varaha-mula). When Kashmir had been drained,
Kashyapa asked Brahmans to settle there. This is still the local tradition, and in the existing physical condition
of the country, we may see some ground for the story which has taken this form. The name of Kashyapa is by
history and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the chief town or collection of dwellings in
the valley was called Kashyapa-pura name which has been identified with the Kao-1r6.nupos of Hecataeus
(apud Stephen of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44). Kashmir is the country meant also
by Ptolemy's Kao-ir,~pta.
Kalhana (c. 12th century CE) a Kashmiri Brahmin was the author of Rajatarangini, and is regarded as
Kashmir's first historian. In fact, his translator Aurel Stein expressed the view that his was the only true
Sanskrit history. Little is known about him except from what he tells us about himself in the opening verses
of his book. His father Champaka was the minister in Harsha of Kashmir's court.
Kalhana in his opening Taranga of Rajatarangini presents his views on how history ought to be written. From
Stein's translation[2]:
Verse 7. Fairness: That noble-minded author is alone worthy of praise whose word, like that of a judge, keeps
free from love or hatred in relating the facts of the past.
Verse 11. Cite earlier authors: The oldest extensive works containing the royal chronicles [of Kashmir] have
become fragmentary in consequence of [the appearance of] Suvrata's composition, who condensed them in
order that (their substance) might be easily remembered.
Verse 12. Suvrata's poem, though it has obtained celebrity, does not show dexterity in the exposition of the
subject-matter, as it is rendered troublesome [reading] by misplaced learning.
Verse 13. Owing to a certain want of care, there is not a single part in Ksemendra's "List of Kings" (Nrpavali)
free from mistakes, though it is the work of a poet.
Verse 14. Eleven works of former scholars containing the chronicles of the kings, I have inspected, as well as
the [Purana containing the] opinions of the sage Nila.
Verse 15. By looking at the inscriptions recording the consecretations of temples and grants by former kings,
at laudatory inscriptions and at written works, the trouble arising from many errors has been overcome.
Despite these stated principles, and despite the value that historians have placed on Kalhana's work, it must
be accepted that his history was far from accurate. Kalhana lived in a time of political turmoil in Kashmir, at
that time a brilliant center of civilization in a sea of barbarism. Kalhana was an educated and sophisticated
Brahmin, well-connected in the highest political circles. His writing is full of literary devices and allusions,
concealed by his unique and elegant style. Kalhana was a poet.
Kalhana borrowed from authors such as Ksemendra, Padmamiriha and Chavillakara, and tells us that he
used many other sources to confirm his information including engravings, literary manuscripts, other
histories and local verbal traditions. Certainly, some of his descriptions show evidence of such research.
However, he clearly used his imagination to fill in the gaps. The Gonandiya dynasty, taking its name from the
legendary first king of Kashmir, is revived twice in the Rājatarangiṇī, but with little historical evidence.
Perhaps Kalhana used it as a literary device, where the ancient and legitimate dynasty was periodically
displaced by invaders and usurpers, but always re-emerged.
Kalhana's chronology, particularly in the first three books, is highly inaccurate. For a man of his time, exact
dates may have been more a way to add realism and emphasis to the account. What mattered was the story.
The Rajtarangini Kalhanas chronicle
The author of the Rajatarangini history chronicles the rulers of the valley from earliest times, from the epic
period of the Mahābhārata to the the reign of Sangrama Deva (c.1006 CE), before the Muslim era. The list of
kings goes back to the 19th century BCE[4]. Some of the kings and dynasties can be identified with inscriptions
and the histories of the empires that periodically included the Kashmir valley, but for long periods the
Rajatarangini is the only source.
This work consists of 7826 verses, which are divided into eight books called Tarangas (waves).
Kalhaṇa’s account of Kashmir begins with the legendary reign of Gonarda, who was contemporary to
Yudhisthira of the Mahābhārata, but the recorded history of Kashmir, as retold by Kalhaṇa begins from the
period of the Mauryas. Kalhaṇa’s account also states that the city of Srinagar was founded by the Mauryan
emperor, Ashoka, and that Buddhism reached the Kashmir valley during this period. From there, Buddhism
spread to several other adjoining regions including Central Asia, Tibet and China.
The Dynasties - Kalhana wrote during the time of Jayasimha (AD 1127-59).
The kings of Kashmir described in the Rājatarangiṇī can be roughly grouped into dynasties as in the table
below.
Notes in parentheses refer to a book and verse. Thus (IV.678) is Book IV verse 678.
Gonanda I The Rajatarangini (I.59) lists Gonanda I as the first king of Kashmir, a relative of
Jarasasamdha of Magadh.
Lost and
Unknown kings
Skipping over "lost kings" we come to Lava of an unknown family. After his family,
Godhara of another family ruled (I.95).
Mauryas
The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military
empire in ancient India, founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE. His grandson
Ashoka the Great (273-232 BCE) built many stupas in Kashmir, and was succeeded by his
son Jalauka.
Kushanas After a Damodara ("of Asoka's kula or another"), we have Hushka, Jushka and Kanishka
(127-147 CE) of the Bactrian Kushan Empire.
(Note the confusion of dates in this and the following sections. Kalhana appears to made
little attempt to determine the actual dates and sequence of rule of the kings and dynasties
he recorded)
Gonandiya After an Abhimanyu, we come to the main Gonandiya dynasty, founded by Gonanda III.
He was (I.191) the first of his race. Nothing is known about his origin. His family ruled for
many generations.
Some others Eventually a Pratapaditya, a relative of Vikrmaditya (not the Shakari) became king (II.6).
After a couple of generations a Vijaya from another family took the throne (II.62).
His son Jayendra was followed by Sandhimat-Aryaraja (34 BCE-17 CE) who had the soul
of Jayendra's minister Sandhimati. Kalhana says that Samdhimat Aryaraja used to spend
"the most delightful Kashmir summer" in worshiping a lingam formed of snow/ice “in the
regions above the forests” (II.138). This too appears to be a reference to the ice lingam at
Amarnath.
Huna Kalhana describes the rules of Toramana and Mihirakula (510-542 CE), but does not
mention that these were Huna people: this is known from other source.
Gonandiya
again
After the Huna, Meghavahana of the Gonandiya family wasbrought back from Gandhara.
His family ruled for a few generations. Meghavahana was a devout Buddhist and
prohibited animal slaughter in his domain.
Karkota
dynasty (625-
1003 CE)
Gonandiya Baladitya made his officer in charge of fodder, Durlabhavardhana (III.489) his
son-in-law because he was handsome. Lalitaditya Muktapida (724-760 CE) of this dynasty
created an empire based on Kashmir and covering most of Northern India and Central
Asia.
(With his account of the Karkota dynasty, relatively recent at the time he wrote his
chronicles, Kalhana's information becomes more consistent with other sources.)
Kalhana relates that Laliditya Muktapida invaded the tribes of the north and after
defeating the Kambojas, he immediately faced the Tusharas. The Tusharas did not give a
fight but fled to the mountain ranges leaving their horses in the battle field. Then
Lalitaditiya meets the Bhauttas in Baltistan in western Tibet north of Kashmir, then the
Dardas in Karakoram/Himalaya, the Valukambudhi and then he encounters Strirajya, the
Uttarakurus and the Pragjyotisha respectively (IV.165-175).
Utpala In the Karkota family, Lalitapida had a concubine, a daughter of a Kalyapala (IV.678).
Her son was Chippatajayapida. The young Chippatajayapida was advised by his maternal
uncle Utpalaka or Utpala (IV.679). Eventually the Karkota dynasty ended and a grandson
of Utpala became king.
Kutumbi After the Utpala dynasty, a Yashaskara became king (V.469). He was a great-grandson of
a Viradeva, a Kutumbi (V.469). Here maybe Kutumbi = kunabi (as in kurmis of UP
and Kunbi of Gujarat/Maharastra). He was the son of a treasurer of Karkota
Shamkaravarman.
Kalhana describes Shamkaravarman (883-902) thus (Stein's trans.): "This [king], who did
not speak the language of the gods but used vulgar speech fit for drunkards, showed that
he was descended from a family of spirit-distillers". This refers to the fact that the power
had passed to the brothers of a queen, who was born in a family of spirit-distillers.
Divira After a young son of Yashaskara, Pravaragupta, a Divira (clerk), became king. His son
Kshemagupta married Didda, daughter of Simharaja of Lohara. After ruling indirectly
and directly, Didda (980-1003 CE) placed Samgramaraja, son of her brother on the throne,
starting the Lohara dynasty.
Lohara The Lohara family was founded by a Nara of Darvabhisara (IV.712). He was a vyavahari
(perhaps merchant) who along with others who owned villages like him had set up little
kingdoms during the last days of Karkotas. The Loharas ruled for many generations. The
author Kalhana was a son of a minister of Harsha of this family.
Damar and
others
After Loharas, a Damara family ruled. Then a general Ramchandra became king. His
daughter Kota Rani married Tibetan Rinchan, who became Muslim.
Cashmere is an archaic spelling of Kashmir, and in some countries it is still spelled this way.
Modern Background
Creation - Prior to the creation of the princely state, Kashmir was ruled by the Durrani Empire, until it was
annexed by Sikhs led by Ranjit Singh. During Sikh rule, Jammu was a tributary of the Sikh Empire.
After the death of the Raja of Jammu, Kishore Singh, in 1822, his son Gulab Singh was recognised by the
Sikhs as his heir. He then, initially under the Sikhs, began expanding his kingdom.
As Raja of Jammu, Gulab Singh conquered Bhadarwah after a slight resistance and then annexed Kishtwar
after the minister, Wazir Lakhpat, quarrelled with the ruler and sought the assistance of Gulab Singh, the
Raja of Kishtwar surrendered without fighting when Gulab Singh's forces arrived. The conquest of Kishtwar
meant that Singh had now gained control of two of the roads which led into Ladakh which then led to this
conquest of that territory. Although there were huge difficulties, due to the mountains and glaciers, the Dogras
under Gulab Singh's officer, Zorawar Singh conquered the whole of Ladakh in two campaigns.
A few years later, in 1840, General Zorawar Singh invaded Baltistan, captured the Raja of Skardu, who had
sided with the Ladakhis, and annexed his country. The following year (1841) Zorawar Singh, while invading
Tibet, was overtaken by winter, and, being attacked when his troops were disabled by cold, perished with
nearly all his army. Whether it was policy or whether it was accident, by 1840 Gulab Singh had encircled
Kashmir.
In the winter of 1845 war broke out between the British and the Sikhs. Gulab Singh remained neutral until
the battle of Sobraon in 1846, when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted adviser of Sir Henry
Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore handed over to the British, as
equivalent to an indemnity of one crore rupees, the hill countries between the rivers Beas and the Indus; by
the second the British made over to Gulab Singh for 75 lakh rupees all the hilly or mountainous country
situated to the east of the Indus and west of the Ravi.
Kashmir did not, however, come into the Maharaja's hands without fighting Imam-ud-din, the Sikh governor,
aided by the restless Bambas from the Jhelum valley, routed Gulab Singh's troops on the outskirts of Srinagar,
killing Wazir Lakhpat. Owing, however, to the mediation of Sir Henry Lawrence, Imam-ud-din desisted from
opposition and Kashmir passed without further disturbances to the new ruler. At Astor and Gilgit the Dogra
troops relieved the Sikhs, Nathu Shah, the Sikh commander, taking service under Gulab Singh
Not long afterwards the Hunza Raja, attacked Gilgit territory. Nathu Shah on behalf of Gulab Singh
responded by leading a force to attack the Hunza valley; he and his force were destroyed, and Gilgit fort fell
into the hands of the Hunza Raja, along with Punial, Yasin, and Darel. The Maharaja then sent two columns,
one from Astor and one from Baltistan, and after some fighting Gilgit fort was recovered. In 1852 the Dogra
troops were annihilated by Gaur Rahman of Yasin, and for eight years the Indus formed the boundary of the
Maharaja's territories.
Gulab Singh died in 1857; and when his successor, Ranbir Singh, had recovered from the strain caused by
the Indian Rebellion, in which he had loyally sided with the British, he was determined to recover Gilgit and
to expand to the frontier. In 1860 a force under Devi Singh crossed the Indus, and advanced on Gaur
Rahman's strong fort at Gilgit. Gaur Rahman had died just before the arrival of the Dogras. The fort was
taken and held by the Maharajas of Jammu and Kashmir until 1947.
Ranbir Singh although tolerant of other creeds lacked his father's strong will and determination, and his
control over the State officials was weak. The latter part of his life was darkened by the dreadful famine in
Kashmir, 1877-9; and in September, 1885, he was succeeded: by his eldest son, Maharaja Pratap Singh,
G.C.S.I
Geography - The area of the state extended from 32° 17′ to 36° 58′ N. and from 73° 26′ to 80° 30′ E.[2]. Jammu
was the southern most part of the state and was adjacent to the Punjab districts of Jhelum, Gujrat, Sialkot,
and Gurdaspur. There is just a fringe of level land along the Punjab frontier, bordered by a plinth of low hilly
country sparsely wooded, broken, and irregular. This is known as the Kandi, the home of the Chibs and the
Dogras. To travel north a range of mountains, 8,000 feet (2,400 m) high, must be climbed. This is a temperate
country with forests of oak, rhododendron, and chestnut, and higher up of deodar and pine, a country of
beautiful uplands, such as Bbadarwah and Kishtwar, drained by the deep gorge of the Chenab river. The
steps of the Himalayan range known as the Pir Panjal lead to the second storey; on which rests the exquisite
valley of Kashmir, drained by the Jhelum river.
Up steeper flights of the Himalayas led to Astore and Baltistan on the north and to Ladakh on the east, a tract
drained by the river Indus. In the back premises, faraway to the north-west, lies Gilgit, west and north of the
Indus, the whole area shadowed by a wall of giant mountains which run east from the Kilik or Mintaka passes
of the Hindu Kush, leading to the Pamirs and the Chinese dominions past Rakaposhi (25,561 ft), along the
Muztagh range past K2 (Godwin Austen, 28,265 feet), Gasherbrum and Masherbrum (28,100 and 28,561 feet
(8,705 m) respectively) to the Karakoram range which merges in the Kunlun Mountains. Westward of the
northern angle above Hunza-Nagar the mighty maze of mountains and glaciers trends a little south of east
along the Hindu Kush range bordering Chitral, and so on into the limits of Kafiristan and Afghan territory.
In 1947 the Indian Independence Act was passed, this meant that British India would be divided into two
independent states, the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India. According to the Act, "the suzerainty
of His Majesty over the Indian States lapses, and with it, all treaties and agreements in force at the date of the
